HISTORY OF CERAMICS 

Pottery is one of the oldest creatures, man is born of his vital needs. In primitive times, its production is determined solely by factors of good. Creative ideas at first was not. The highly developed ancient cultures have already stated, however, in this area is very specific claims, with time more and more stronger. Experimented not only in technological terms, but deliberately drew attention to the artistic value of the product. Improve the quality of the pieces, and simultaneously increased the desire to produce a greater variety of shapes and design of the outer surface to make richer. So in the end ceramics becomes an object of art, and begins its colorful history, steadily towards ever more ambitious targets.

The term "ceramic" should build on the Greek designation of potters clay, from which comes the Greek word keramos  - Pottery. Under the ceramic, therefore, refers to such products, for which the clay (in the case of kaolin), mixed with feldspar, quartz, or lime, is a main raw material. These precursors are mixed and processed into a mass that is either by hand or on a turntable is molded and then baked.

Some types of pottery were formed gradually, as the improvement of manufacturing processes, varying depending on the educational properties of the crock and incandescent heat. Most of them are held to this tribute. The earliest form - this is an ordinary product with an earthy pottery, colored and porous crocks. This includes, in one case a typical household ceramics, and in another, this category includes such products, which in many ways ennobled - and mold and engraving (eg Bucchero nero),with a thin layer of ornamental (Greek and Roman pottery Terra-sigillata), colored glaze (gafnerkeramika "Renaissance). By the end of 16 century finds its way to Europe majolica. With porous crocks of containing iron and lime, in with the white porcelain tile weight, or clay, it is covered with two glazes: opaque, with the content of tin, and lead a transparent shiny glaze. Majolica comes from countries beyond the Alps called faience. Decor painted on majolica glaze on the wet before the product could burn at a temperature of about 1000 ° C. Paints murals were taken of the same chemical composition as the glaze, but they were an essential part of such metal oxides that can withstand high heat (so-called. Fireproof paint - blue, green, yellow and violet). Only since the 18 th century are turning to so-called muffle colors that are stacked on the already burnt glaze, and with their help, especially on porcelain, reach exceptional results. In the 16 century in Germany covered the production of stone ware. White (eg, in Siegburg) or colored (eg, in Rehren) very tight crock it consists of clay mixed with field pshatom, quartz, grog and other substances. Fired at a temperature of 1200-1280 ° C, stone utensils are very stiff and almost non-porous. In the Netherlands, to the model of Chinese ceramics, it began to produce red, and the same feature detects stone utensils Boettger. Very unusual stone utensils made after Wedgwood in England. Fine pottery as a special type of ceramics is born in England in the first mat XVIII century. With a white porous crocks, covered with a white glaze as it depends on the fortress crock divided into soft thin pottery with a high lime content, the middle - the lower its content of hard and entirely without mortar. This last composition and strength often resembles a stone crock or porcelain dishes. Initially, ceramic mold by hand. The invention of the potter's wheel in the 3 rd millennium BC was a great advance, allowing the manufacturing dishes with much thinner walls. For other types of dishes, like the dishes, take templates to make the form as possible proportionate.

Technique of ceramic production has long been familiar to people. In no other industry crafts history of the human ability to affect her so systematically as in the pottery. Pottery is not exposed to other materials like glass, wood, metal and fabric; atmospheric influences, and ceramic products have gone up to you so of all ages.

ANCIENT AGE

Already in the VII century BC   ceramic figures prominently in that bears the name of Greek art. Here are connected in a harmonious unity of the two main prerequisites of artistic crafts - craft and art time. Turning up the result on the one hand, high   technological level of manufacturing, on the other, that artistic tact with which she carried out, this unity is expressed in the appropriate form of products and how they are decorating. The overall high level based on a rich industrial experience as well as turn on a well-developed division of labor with a row of specialized business processes. Products intended for various purposes - there were items representative, votive me everyday - the appointment was influenced by the quality here. If the studios works of Greek vase painting is essentially the only thing that remains of Greek art in general, a lot of pretty mediocre - especially more recent - ceramics points to a wide range of consumers.

Performed Greek pottery from well elutriated clay, kroyas on the outer surface of a very thin engobes. Decorations were written so-called luster, that is, alumina coating, which is a result of physical processes during firing has a shiny black color. The style of this painting can distinguish certain periods of Greek keramita.

Ground on which were founded upon the Greek tribes after their settlement in Greece, were   two great civilizations 2 nd millennium BC. Oe., island - Crete and continental - Mycenae. Both were distinguished by high technical and artistic level of ceramic production. Based on the experience of Mycenaean culture, the Greeks in the period from X to VIII century BC. Oe.developed a style that has carried the seeds of the future of classical Greek art. By type of decor this period is called thegeometric (and the place of the biggest finds - in Athens - a period dipilonskogo style). The pattern forms highlighted lentoobraznym rhythmic arrangement of geometric motifs, including several in this geometric motifs borrowed from nature, and even human figures.

With the formation of the Greek settlements on the islands and in Asia Minor come new designs and new impulses, this time from the scope of the Egyptian and Mesopotamian culture. From the mid-VII and prior to VI century BC, during the so-calledOrientalizing with centers in Corinth and elsewhere in the Greek settlements, painting vase decor is influenced by the eastern composite designs with motifs of animals and plants.

Since as early VI century BC in Attica have been producing so-called black-figure vases, ie, ceramic vessels with lyustrovoy painting and scratched pattern. Here, however, revealed somewhat peculiar subjects, such as deeds of Homeric heroes, Heracles, or the gods, like Dionysus - lentoobrazno arranged in the form of scenes, and simultaneously increases the choice of types of vessels (amphorae, Kanthare, craters, etc. "). Some potters or vase-painters we even know by name, whom they signed their own products. By this time include small painted Votive plastic.

By the end of VI century BC in the artistic approach and tastes are changing. Outside of the vessel is now completely covered with black paint - only the contours of the figures were left non painted - and then draws the fine detail brush. The so-called red-figure vases occur already at the classical period of Greek art, and of the same period the so-called white lekythos,that is coated with a layer of white coating - daub - and decorated with red or black painted vessels, mostly related to the veneration of the dead. They produce in the workshops of Attica since the mid V century BC

In the IV century BC lofty themes of the previous period are disappearing and in their place appear graceful, including the theme here of small plastic, which find expression in the statues of women in the girls. One of the largest manufacturing centers, this plastic is the name of Tanagra figures in it was made, moreover, in the Greek colonies in Italy, Asia Minor and the island of Rhodes. Common knowledge center, along with Tanagro was Mirina in Asia Minor. In the IV century BC center of the artistic development of the weakened economies of cities Greek city moves to the Greek colonies (Puglia, Campania and Lucania in Italy) and in the northern Black Sea (Pantikapaion in the Crimea). In both these areas, though, and continued, in principle, the tendency to develop red-figure style, but with significant differences in the subjects. In Pantikapaion it attempts dramatic group scenes, taken from their heroic legends, not to mention the expansion of colorful scales, often lead to the fact that the smooth surface of the vessel is discharged from the painted reliefs in southern Italy, on the contrary, because of the prevailing there love for luxury appears some mannerism. Known so-called theatrical vases from Apulia, the whole body which is littered with groups around one central image.

The original local production - black Etruscan pottery - that its smooth outer surface and a plastic or puntsirovannym decor, often under the influence of finishing metal products, demonstrates the great artisan skills. This product, called «Bucchero nero», manufactured during the VI-IV century BC

C III century BC ornament instead of scenes have become a stylized patterns on a black background. The variety of colors (white, yellow, red), fine pattern and detect increasingly strong influence of metal receptacles mild forms contributed to the first half of III century BC special popularity of these gnafianskih products, named for the place of their biggest discovery.

Meanwhile, manifested typical signs of Roman art, but with the expansion of the Roman Empire, its culture has received further spread, in the I century BC ceramics are quite enriched with new species, namely the red pottery with daub and shiny outer surface. Equipped with a common hallmark of the potter, so she called «Terra sigillata». Decorated with her most is pressed into the model topography. This pottery produced in Arezzo, near Florence, the present, and in other parts of the empire, for example, in Gaul and on the island of Samos. As extruded products in the forms. a large group of them form small lamps, mostly age of emperors.

MIDDLE

With the fall of the Roman Empire, the prerequisites for further cultural development is not. This situation lasted for several centuries, but gradually comes when a new upsurge of creative forces, media art ideas are other branches of handicraft.Pottery finds itself again in Europe only in the Romanesque period, although in terms of artistic household ceramics have long been a mediocre product, even if starting from the XIV century are more and more attempts to cope with the outer surface decoration. Proof of this is producing a noble impression decoration in Gothic letters, recruited pattern in the strip, but the value of this pottery in her documentary rather than artistic merit.

A much more significant in this respect, architectural ceramics, whose production of a broad area begins in Europe already in the XI century. From castles, monasteries, as well as individual churches extant tiles and tiles from the XII century - since figured in the ornamental motifs in relief and partly even with monochrome glaze. In the XV century ceramic production takes a fairly large sizes, covering other areas of manufacturing and drawing closer already with artistic creativity. Since the end of the XIV century are decorated with reliefs stove tiles, which in décor, ornaments, religious subjects, motifs of heroic tales or scenes from the life - through the fantasy folk potter. Since the end of XV and XVI century until the middle of Central Europe glaze increasingly found the green in the XVI century on the nature of the vessels Late occurs even colored tin-lead glaze.

RENAISSANCE

If you bear in mind the production of refined ceramics, the first impulse to it gets Southern Europe, namely at the turn of the XIII century in the East, where the culture of Islam has managed to rehash the rich traditions of the ancient world, particularly in the field of ceramics exhibiting great progress both technically and aesthetically respect. The simplest method of production consists in the fact that the porous crock oblitsevat opaque layer of alumina as a base for painted or scratched (sgraffito)decoration and before baking it covered with a thin transparent sing, usually colorless, easily melting and, moreover, a brilliant lead glaze. In southern Europe from Persia and Turkey, this technique, known as polumayoliki was entered by the Arabs in the XIV century, but broad application, it finds itself in the late XV century and the beginning of the XVI century in Northern Italy, especially in the workshops of Padua, Bologna, Perugia Mr. Chitta di Castello.

But the higher level forms a more technically demanding and artistically more sophisticated real majolica - with opaque and shiny tin-lead glaze and decorated, filled with fire-resistant paint. And it came to Mr. majolica Europe through Arab traders, and, particularly important role here played the Mediterranean harbor, and it may very well be that the term "majolica" comes from the island of Mallorca, the main center for the export of the Spanish-Moorish ceramics in Italy.

Italy. The production of this majolica spread here in the middle of XV century. While the Florentine sculptor Luca della Robbia applied this technique to large reliefs, using and, except for painting, colored glaze. In this regard, the work of his shop are the only ones, because until the last quarter of the XV century Italian majolica in general was under the influence of the Spanish-Moorish pottery, borrowing from it not only shapes but also the way of decor. Technical level it reached its design, but only when and in Italy became famous golden chandeliers, so characteristic of Hispano-Moorish pottery.

1470-1500. A departure from foreign models and the formation of his own artistic vision takes place in the last quarter century, XV I, when the traditional Gothic language (vegetative shoots with stylized leaves, foliage, lettering in Gothic minuscule) penetrate more and more increasing, the elements of early Renaissance ( pomegranate pattern, rosettes, acanthus and palmette, scaly pattern, arabesques, bust of men and women in costumes of the time). Since this age have very precise playing style, stuck to it the epithet "strict style" of this style was the center of Faenza.

1500-1550. Since the beginning of XVI century the production of majolica is included in the total flow Renaissance art, finally turned into a full-fledged province of creativity. The function of majolica is changing, and in connection with this change and the types of its forms. In the XV century, when it served as the main domestic purposes, primarily produced albarelli, vessels for wine and water jugs. In the XVI century the ceramics becomes something of a necessary luxury in interiors patrician houses, where it is removed banquet tables, or it acts as a valuable gift. At its heart is just flat ware - plates and dishes that are more effective than other vessels that could serve the purposes of the decoration. Changing functions involves a number of technical achievements, but even more emphasis on careful dressing of clay and molding, so that the proportion of vessels leaving more subtle and elegant. The quality of glazes, in turn, improves, and moreover as opaque as a basis for paintings, tin glaze, and top - a colorless, transparent glaze, which, burning, reported by a surface vessel is tarnished. I colored glazes were applied, namely, light blue (smaltino) and dark-blue (turchino).

Improving the painting means a rich color and great thematic diversity becomes a matter of artistic ambition. The decoration was of such high quality that spoke of her as a "wonderful style". It reaches its climax in the second quarter of the XVI century, evolving in different directions.

One. Ornamentation characterize the countless options favorite in the Renaissance grotesque ornament, the common heritage of all the workshops. Originality with different product workshops Castel Durante, bearing in mind the fantastic group of figures of people and animals that are located across the surface of symmetry, in several fields. Faenza, for its part has developed a slight ornamentation with a vegetable mainly elements like acanthus palmette and these shoots which ended mascarons or dolphins torso, festoons, wreaths and vases. They wrote mostly on the blue or two-tone background. The top of this grotesque style is Faenza in about 1525 products Kazi Pirotty (studio family Pirotti), filled with technology «berretino». In this case, instead of white used light blue glaze, and the image is left on the non painted on the painted dark-blue background, so that two different blue colors give a striking contrast. In other Italian shops development ornamentation leaked between these two directions, with particularly a lot of grotesque motifs came from the workshop in medichianskoy Kaffodzholo.

Along with the grotesque appears in some leafy or flower shops ornamentation «a foglie», «a flori» or the so-called «alla porcelana», inspired by the imported Chinese porcelain. For white or light-blue glaze discharged curls. However, the artistic significance of this type of decorating reached only in the middle of the XVI century in Venice, where he was kept in the second half of XVI century, when the monochrome multicolor began to give way, and the small flowers were replaced by lush acanthus (style by Domenico da Venezia).

From this general direction, different only in the local options, to some extent deviates Deruta in Umbria, thanks to his producing the impression of conservative style. In technical terms, it describes the application of cold, in most cases, blue-yellow tones and golden chandeliers, with the front surface only occasionally supplied with a lead glaze. In ornamentation kept arhaiziruyuschih motives. A characteristic feature of the present images on flat plates of a serious kind of girls in contemporary dress.

2. Shape painting. In all these centers already since the beginning of XVI century there were a combination of decorating the side plates grotesque ornament with figure painting in the mirror. With every reason to regard this period as an artistic culmination of Italian majolica, but, as we know, painting was technically perfect, sometimes even executed in several layers, each light tone. In the second quarter of the XVI century, during the "beautiful style, switched to writing graphic scenes depicting the mythological or historical scenes and pictures of manners. Situated without regard to the tectonic segmentation of the entire face of the plates, these scenes completely displace ornament. The most distinguished works created in the workshops of Castel Durante and Urbino, where for the development of this style of painting has made a lot one of the most remarkable mayolichistov Nicola Pellipar, acting in Castel Durante. He worked at the studio of his son Guido Durantino (Judas di Castel Durante), who later opened a restaurant in Urbino, which acquired the nickname Fontana. At the painters of the famous era of Urbino "Nicola has a special influence, and, moreover, as those who worked in the studio Fountains (Xanthi Francesco Avella, Orazio Fontana), and at operating outside of it (Francesco Durantino). Distinguished by extraordinary beauty of colors, drawings strict and sensitive stylization, Urbino style in the thirties has been mastered in Venice, Pesaro, Gubbio, to say nothing of Faenza, where he lived one of the best graphic artists Baldassare Manyara.

1550-1620. In reaction to the painting in Urbino style and at the same time because of the admiration of Chinese porcelain that was imported to Italy via Venice, the third Thursday of the XVI century extends the production of white majolica.Here leads the Faenza. Finishing vessels confined to sketch images of the targeted cherubs, busts or schematically treated by tendrils, as performed by Blue n yellow style created Virdzhiliott Kalamelli and his successor Giovanni Bettizi («stilo compendiario»).

About 1600 sets known stagnation, when the production was directed primarily in this export-white majolica. Regardless of the preceding development, as well as from the present situation, is formed in the first half of XVII century, a new center of production of majolica, namely Montelupo in Tuscany. The local products stood out grotesquely stylized, brightly colored and lapidary figural motifs depicted in the national spirit.

Later periods. New flowering comes in selected centers in the second half of XVII century, when mayolichnoe production is fully adjustable to a Baroque concept. Attention is directed primarily at Venice, which was in style unity with nearby shops in Bassano and Angarano. Very thin crock of vessels covered with gray, clean in the brilliant glaze, painting is executed malovyrazitelnymi paints matte shades, in most cases manganese. At the same time revive production in the old Ligurian shops, located in Savona, Albissola and Genoa, but it happens when the center of development shifted already in the country beyond the Alps.

France. With respect to the tin glaze, then a long time their use was limited in France by the types of pottery production, which came from Italy. At the same products, drop out of the sphere of Italian influence, used exclusively lead glaze.They are found in   two famous groups of the French Renaissance ceramics - the so-called Saint-Porchaire and   Bernard Palissy products

Ceramics Saint Porchaire, from which has reached us about 60 things wrong at first called "china Henry II». It was attributed to various authors. Today, the prevailing view that the remaining products have arisen in the period of 1523-1560 years, that is mainly still in the reign of Henry II. In the history of ceramics, they represent a unique phenomenon, without beginning or end, while their form and decoration of vehicle, resembling Niella rather say that we are dealing with the invention of some goldsmiths. Ceramics was performed Saint-Porchaire of fine-grained, almost white mass, grinding often thin and kroyas transparent, ivory, lead glaze. Patterns was pressed through dies, and the deepening of color clay dough filled with black, red or brown color. The development of these products can be divided into three stages: 1) simple, derived from metal work to form more awkward decor, 2) architectural forms with lush molded or shaped grotesque decoration; complex concave patterns in red or yellow clay dough, and the same color are taken for the reliefs, and 3) a period of decline, characterized by bizarre forms and a depression or relief decorations in the careless, sometimes even brutal execution; influenced Palissy in the reliefs appear naturalistic motifs.

Bernard Palissy found myself a typical Renaissance artist, had a significant impact on different fields of art and science.First, naturalist, and later a painter on glass, it is between 1540 and 1550 year in St. with great determination, turned to experiments with colored ceramic glazes. Only 15 years later he managed to simultaneously burn a few of enamel paints, and since that time he devoted himself almost exclusively with colored ceramic glaze. At its inception, mostly large platters with plastic ornaments in the form realistically treated by plants and animals - see the scientist. Palissy is famous especially because these borrowed motifs from nature, he could be in a harmonious whole. Glaze is even more emphasized, which makes the work paints a very natural. In contemporary art Palissy had a strong influence.

Arriving in the sixties in Paris, Palissy changes its naturalistic style in arabesque, following this example today, including parts made of different material compositions (in particular, he owns the stock, made the model works olovyannichnika Francois Briot). After the massacre of St. Bartholomew for his religious beliefs were held in detention in the Bastille, where in 1590 he died.Palissy many potters imitated - in the XIX century, the most productive Alfred Korple in Paris.

Mayolichnoe production appears in France as an afterthought, and progress in this area is noticeable only in the Baroque. In the XVI century vessels with tin glazes were still isolated experiments, but this technique is widely used in the manufacture of tiles, especially by communicating with the name Masseota Abaca. The impetus for the first experiments gave may have seen the Italian potters, who at the beginning of XVI century, migrated to France, like, for example, Girolamo della Robbia from the famous Florentine family. In the second half of XVI century and followed a number of mayolichistov. In 1556, majolica workshop in Lyon opened Sebastiano Griffo from Genoa, and Domenico Tardessir from Faenza. Production of the studio was decorated in the style of Urbino, but the colors and details found distinctive features. In the eighties the Italian workshops occur in Nantes, Nimes and disbelief, but when it comes to local potter, a tin glaze of them still do not get distribution.

Germany. A similar situation exists in the XVI century in Germany. Local mayolichnye products originate only from southern Germany and in style so similar to the Swiss majolica at the time that they are difficult to distinguish from it. Produced exactly plates   and aldarelli, that is, imitation of Italian majolica, whose significance is more historical and cultural than artistic.The exceptions are the vessels in the form of an owl, with which, however, there are many copies. Excluding these imperfect imitations of Italian majolica, a German Renaissance ceramics can be traced two trends: the so-called gafnerkeramika, which comes from the traditions of the Middle Ages, bringing them to completion - and stone utensils, which - except for the porcelain - is the greatest contribution to Germany development of the whole pottery.

Gafnerkeramika. It has to do with color pottery with lead glaze, most stove tiles. As such, they were manufactured in countries beyond the Alps since the XIII century. From the XIV century, they were decorated with reliefs, in the XV century as they began to cover the green, and since 1500, moreover, yellow, brown and sometimes white glaze. In the XVI century glazed tiles are produced already in wide area. In Germany, the main center served Nuremberg, Austria - Salzburg, Switzerland - Winterthur. Swiss origin tiles - flat and decorated only by means of painting bright colors, while the Germans are covered with reliefs and neraspisnymi colored glazes. Subjects jewelry - biblical, mythological, allegorical and historical - are taken from the engravings on copper and wood plaques belonging to the so-called "small" masters. With the progressive course of Renaissance paint glazes were becoming more expressive.

In the large vessels of the XVI century the price of the same technology, but they produced only in the case. Their major effect stems from the wealth of colorful and unusual, ornamental or figured, relief decoration. In Germany gafnerkeramikoy closely related to the names of Oswald and Paul Reinhardt Proyninga in Nuremberg, as well as Lotte Melchior and Adam Vogt in Augsburg. In Winterthur famous family Pfau, Earhart and Graaf, who worked there until the XVIII century.

Stone ware. Production has begun in its first half of XVI century in the Rhineland. For baking required high temperatures, and therefore needs a considerable amount of firewood, which did not have in the Mediterranean region. Performed stone utensils of first-class raw materials, they find themselves after firing a nonporous, that should not have any glaze. All the same glaze applied, but with special properties, necessary because of the strong incandescent heat. The most frequently used were salt glaze, whose formation occurred when filling in the salt kiln during firing. Soda contained in the salt, entered at the same time in connection with aluminum oxide and silicates, forming a thin and firmly layered on the outer surface of the vessel. Decorated this product before baking molded and pressed into the model ornaments. Subsequently, also resorted to engraving crock or pressing of a pattern with wooden stamps. Shape of the vessel created by the original draft, describing a separate centers. Where made the first stone utensils - in Cologne, Freheve or Siegburg - today is not yet clear. In all three cities there were similar conditions for this, with their tradition of ceramic production goes to the Middle Ages.

Köln - Frechen. Distinguish the products of these two cities is difficult, because in The local shops have worked with the same material, and one in the same style. Shard - gray frosting - light brown or yellowish. It develops the whole scale of forms of German stone ware. Special mention should be made so-called "shturtsbehery (cups with a lid)," mug-hopper "- a funnel-shaped mouth, ball-shaped pitchers set low on the neck," pitchers with a bearded man "(pear-shaped jars with a bearded mask), cups with a spout, and Finally, the "pint" and "Schnell". "Pitchers with a bearded man" from Frechen, usually equipped with belted with an inscription, sometimes with Mr. date. The most significant was the Cologne workshop Eygelshteyna, which was later translated into Frechen.

Siegburg. Featured zigburgskuyu ceramics primarily outstanding quality clay, which, burning, remained white or at most became slightly greenish. Because here only in exceptional cases, apply a brown or reddish glaze, content, usually a thin layer of salt glaze. In the XVI century, found some of the most typical forms of Siegburg, as "Schnell" or mugs with a spout. Until the middle of XVI century things were decorated with reliefs. Figured the theme shown on the belts, medallions, or coats of arms, sometimes with the initiation of the potter's initials or the date, the last often are found on the products of time   1560-1610 period.Notable designers were F. Truck and Anno Knyutgen with his relatives Peter, a Christian by Hans Hilger.

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